The Living Environment --
Learning Standard 1
(Retyped from the original by Stephen D. Klein/ Shenendehowa Schools, Clifton Park, N.Y. 12065)
Students
will use mathematical analysis, scientific inquiry, and engineering
design, as
appropriate, to pose
questions, seek answers, and develop
solutions.
Science
relies on logic and creativity. Science
is both a body of knowledge and a way of knowing – an intellectual and
social
process that applies human intelligence to explaining how the world
works. Scientific explanations are
developed using
both observations (evidence) and what people already know about the
world
(scientific knowledge). All scientific
explanations are tentative and subject to change. Good
science involves questioning, observing and inferring,
experimenting, finding evidence, collecting and organizing data,
drawing valid
conclusions, and undergoing peer review.
Understanding the scientific view of the natural world is an
essential
part of personal, societal, and ethical decision making.
Scientific literacy involves internalizing
the scientific critical attitude so that it can be applied in everyday
life,
particularly in relation to health, commercial, and technological
claims. Also see Laboratory Checklist in
Appendix A.
Key Idea 1:
The
central purpose of
scientific inquiry is to develop explanations of natural phenomena in a
continuing and creative process.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Performance
Elaborate on basic
scientific and personal explanations of natural
Indicator
1.1 phenomena, and develop
extended visual models and mathematical
formulations to represent one’s
thinking.
Major Understandings
1.1a
Scientific
explanations are built by combining evidence that can be
observed with what people
already know about the world.
1.1b
Learning
about the historical development of scientific concepts or about
individuals
who have contributed to scientific knowledge provides a better
under-standing
of scientific inquiry and the relationship between science and society.
1.1c
Science
provides knowledge, but values are also essential to making effective
and
ethical decisions about the application of scientific knowledge.
Performance
Hone ideas through
reasoning, library research, and
discussion with
others,
Indicator 1.2
including experts.
Major Understandings
1.2a
Inquiry
involves asking questions and locating, interpreting, and processing
information from a variety of sources.
1.2b
Inquiry
involves making judgments about the reliability of the source and
relevance of information.
Performance
Work toward reconciling
competing explanations; clarify points of
agreement
Indicator 1.3
and disagreement.
Major Understandings
1.3a
Scientific
explanations are accepted when they are consistent with experimental
and
observational evidence and when they lead to accurate predictions.
1.3b
All
scientific explanations are tentative and subject to change or
improvement. Each
new bit of evidence can create more
questions than it
answers. This
leads to increasingly better
understanding of how things work in
the living world.
Performance Coordinate
explanations at
different levels of scale, points of focus, and degrees of complexity and
specificity, and recognize the Indicator 1.4
need for such alternative representations of the
natural world.
Major Understandings
1.4a Well-accepted
theories are ones that are supported by different
kinds of scientific investigations often involving the contributions of
individuals from different disciplines.
Key Idea 2:
Beyond
the use of reasoning
and consensus, scientific inquiry involves the testing of proposed
explanations
involving the use of conventional techniques and procedures and usually
requiring considerable ingenuity.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Performance
Devise ways of making
observations to test proposed
explanations.
Indicator 2.1
Performance
Refine research ideas
through library investigations, including
electronic
Indicator 2.2
information retrieval and
reviews of the literature,
and through peer feedback obtained from review and discussion.
Major Understandings
2.2a Development
of a research plan involves researching background
information and understanding the major concepts in the area being
investigated. Recommendations for
methodologies, use of technologies, proper equipment, and safety
precautions
should also be included.
Performance Develop and present
proposals including formal hypotheses to test explanations:
Indicator
2.3
i.e., predict
what should be
observed under specific conditions if the explanation
is true.
Major Understandings
2.3a
Hypotheses
are predictions based upon both research and observation.
2.3b
Hypotheses
are widely used in science for determining what data to
collect and as a guide for
interpreting the data.
2.3c
Development of a research plan for testing a hypothesis
requires
planning to avoid bias (e.g.
repeated trials, large sample size, and objective data
collection techniques).
Performance Carry out a research plan
for testing explanations, including selecting and
Indicator
2.4
developing techniques,
acquiring and building apparatus, and recording
observations as necessary.
Key idea 3:
The
observations made while
testing proposed explanations, when analyzed using conventional and
invented
methods, provide new insights into natural phenomena.
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Performance
Use various methods of
representing and organizing
observations (e.g. diagrams,
Indicator 3.1
tables, charts, graphs,
equations, matrices) and insightfully interpret the organized
data.
Major Understandings
3.1a
Interpretation
of data leads to development of additional hypotheses, the
formulation of
generalization, or explanations of natural phenomena.
Performance
Apply statistical
analysis techniques when appropriate to test if chance alone
Indicator 3.2
explains the results.
Performance Assess
correspondence
between the predicted result contained in the hypothesis and actual result, and reach a
conclusion as to Indicator 3.3
whether the explanation on which the prediction was based is
supported.
Performance Based on the
results of the
test and through public discussion, revise the explanation and contemplate additional
research.
Indicator 3.4
Major Understandings
3.4a
Hypotheses
are valuable, even if they turn out to be not true, because they
may lead to further investigation.
3.4b
Claims
should be questioned if the data are based on samples that are very
small, biased, or
inadequately controlled or if the conclusions are based on the
faulty, incomplete, or
misleading use of numbers.
3.4c
Claims
should be questioned if fact and opinion are intermingled, if
adequate evidence is not
cited, or if the conclusions do not follow logically from the
evidence given.
Performance Develop a written report for
public scrutiny that describes the proposed explanation, including a literature
review, the
Indicator 3.5
research carried out, its
result, and suggestions for further
research.
Major Understandings
3.5a
One
assumption of science is that other individuals could arrive at the
same
explanation if they had access
to similar evidences. Scientists
make
the results of
their investigations public;
they describe the investigations in ways that enable
others to repeat the
investigations.
3.5b
Scientists
use peer review to evaluate the results of scientific investigations
and the
explanations proposed by other
scientists. They analyze the
experimental
procedures, examine the
evidence, identify faulty reasoning, point out statements
that go beyond the evidence,
and suggest alternative explanations for the same
observations.
The Living Environment --
Learning Standard 4
(Retyped from the revised Core Curriculum by
Stephen
Klein/ Shenendehowa H.S. Clifton Park, N.Y. 12065)
Students
will understand and apply scientific concepts, principles, and theories
pertaining to the physical
setting and living environment and recognize
the
historical development of ideas in science.
Key Idea 1:
Living
things are both
similar to and different from each other and from nonliving things.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Living
things are similar in that they rely on many of the same processes to
stay
alive, yet are different in the ways that these processes are carried
out.
Nonliving
things lack certain features of living organisms, such as the ability
to
maintain a cellular organization, carry out metabolic processes while
maintaining internal stability (homeostasis), and pass on heredity
information
through reproduction.
In
most biological respects, humans are like other living organisms. For instance, they are made up of cells like
those of other animals, have much the same chemical composition, have
organ
systems and physical characteristics like many others, reproduce in a
similar
way, carry the same kind of genetic information system, and are part of
a food
web.
The
components of living systems, from a single cell to an ecosystem, must
interact
to maintain balance. Different
organisms
have different regulatory mechanisms regulatory mechanisms that
function to
maintain the level of organization necessary for life.
Diversity is evident and important at many
levels of organization – from a single cell to a multicellular organism
to an
ecosystem.
Performance Explain
how diversity of populations within ecosystems relates to the stability
of
Indicator
1.1
ecosystems.
Major Understandings
1.1a
Populations
can be categorized by the function they serve.
Food webs
identify the relationships
among producers, consumers, and decomposers carrying
out either autotrophic or
heterotrophic nutrition.
1.1b
An
ecosystem is shaped by the nonliving environment as well as its
interacting
species. The world contains a wide
diversity of physical conditions, which
creates
a variety of environments.
1.1c
In
all environments, organisms compete for vital resources.
The linked and chang-
ing interactions of populations and the environment
compose the total ecosystem.
1.1d
The
interdependence of organisms in an established ecosystem often results
in
approximate stability over hundreds and thousands of
years. For example, as one popu-
lation increases, it is held in check by one or more
environmental factors or another
species.
1.1e
Ecosystems,
like many other complex systems, tend to show cyclic changes around
a state of approximate equilibrium.
1.1f
Every
population is linked, directly or indirectly, with many others in an
ecosys-
tem. Disruptions
in the numbers and types of species and environmental changes can
upset ecosystem stability.
Performance Describe and
explain the
structures and functions of the human body at different
Indicator
1.2
organizational
levels (e.g., systems, tissues, cells, organelles).
Major Understandings
1.2a Important
levels of
organization for structure and function include
organelles,
cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and whole organisms.
1.2b
Humans
are complex organisms. They require
multiple systems for digestion,
respiration, reproduction,
circulation, excretion, movement, coordination, and immunity.
The systems interact to perform the
life functions.
1.2c
The
components of the human body, from organ systems to cell organelles,
interact to maintain a balanced
internal environment. To successfully
accomplish
this, organisms possess a diversity of control mechanisms
that detect deviations
and make corrective actions.
1.2d
If
there is a disruption in any human system, there may be a corresponding
imbalance in homeostasis.
1.2e
The
organs and systems of the body help to provide all the cells with their
basic
needs. The cells of the body are of
different kinds and are grouped in
ways that
enhance how they function together.
1.2f
Cells
have particular structures that perform specific jobs.
These structures per-
form the actual work of the
cell. Just as systems are coordinated
and work together, cell
parts must also be coordinated and
work together.
1.2g
Each
cell is covered by a membrane that performs a number of important func-
tions for the cell. These include: separation from its outside environment,
controlling
which molecules enter and leave the
cell, and recognition of chemical signals.
The
processes of diffusion and active
transport are important in the movement of materials in
and out of cells.
1.2h
Many
organic and inorganic substances dissolved in cells allow necessary
chemical reactions to take place in order to maintain
life. Large organic food molecules
such as proteins and starches must
initially be broken down (digested to amino acids and
simple sugars respectively), in
order to enter cells. Once nutrients
enter a cell, the cell will
use them as building blocks in the synthesis of compounds
necessary for life.
1.2i
Inside
the cell a variety of specialized structures, formed from many
different
molecules, carry out the transport of materials
(cytoplasm), extraction of energy from
nutrients (mitochondria), protein
building (ribosomes), waste disposal (cell membrane),
storage (vacuole), and information
storage (nucleus).
1.2j
Receptor
molecules play an important role in the interactions between cells. Two
primary agents of cellular communication are hormones and
chemicals produced by
nerve cells. If
nerve or hormone signals are blocked,
cellular communication is
disrupted and the organism's
stability is affected.
Indicator
1.3
organization
present in more complex organisms.
Major Understandings
1.3a
The
structures present in some single-celled organisms act in a manner
similar to
the tissues and systems
found in multicellular organisms, thus enabling them to
perform all of the life
processes needed to maintain homeostasis.
Key Idea 2:
Organisms
inherit genetic
information in a variety of ways that result in continuity of structure
and
function between parents and offspring.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Organisms
from all kingdoms possess a set of instructions (genes) that determine
their
characteristics. These
instructions
are passed from parents to offspring during reproduction.
Students are familiar with simple mecha-
nisms
related to the inheritance of some physical traits in offspring. They are now able to begin to understand the
molecular basis of heredity and how this set of instructions can be
changed
through recombination, mutation and genetic engineering.
The
inherited instructions that are passed from parent to offspring exist
in the
form of a code. This code is contained
in DNA molecules. The DNA molecules
must be accurately replicated before being passed on.
Once the coded information is passed on, it is used by a cell to
make proteins. The proteins that are
made become cell parts and carry out most functions of the cell.
Throughout
recorded history, humans have used selective breeding and other
biotechnological methods to produce products or organisms with
desirable
traits. Our current understanding of
DNA extends this to the manipulation of genes leading to the
development of new
combinations of traits and new varieties of organisms.
Performance
Explain how the structure
and replication of genetic material result in
offspring that
Indicator 2.1
resemble their parents.
Major Understandings
2.1a Genes
are inherited, but their expression can be modified by
interactions
with the environment.
2.1b Every
organism requires a set of coded instructions for
specifying its traits. For
offspring to resemble their
parents, there must be a reliable way to transfer information from one
generation to the next. Heredity is the
passage of these instructions from one generation to another.
2.1c Hereditary
information is contained in genes, located in the
chromosomes of each
cell. An inherited trait of
an individual can be determined by one or
by many genes, and a single gene can influence more than one trait. A human cell contains many thousands of
different genes in its nucleus.
2.1d
In
asexually reproducing organisms, all the genes come from a single
parent.
Asexually produced offspring are
normally genetically identical to the parent.
2.1e
In
sexually reproducing organisms, the new individual receives half of the
genetic
information from its mother (via the
egg) and half from its father (via the sperm).
Sexually
produced offspring often resemble,
but are not identical to, either of their parents.
2.1f
In
all organisms, the coded instructions for specifying the
characteristics of the
organism are carried in DNA, a large molecule
formed
from subunits arranged in a sequences with bases of four kinds
(represented by
A, G, C, and T). The chemical and
structural properties of DNA are the basis for how the genetic
information that
underlies heredity is both encoded in genes (as a string of molecular
“bases”)
and replicated by means of a template.
2.1g
Cells
store and use coded information. The
genetic information stored in DNA is
used to direct the synthesis of the thousands of proteins
that each cell requires.
2.1h
Genes
are segments of DNA molecules. Any
alteration of the DNA sequence is a
mutation. Usually, an altered gene
will be passed on to every cell that
develops from it.
2.1i
The work of the cell is carried out by the many different
types of molecules it
assembles, mostly proteins.
Protein molecules are long, usually folded
chains made from 20 different kinds of amino acids in a specific
sequence. This sequence influences the
shape of the
protein. The shape of the protein, in
turn, determines its function.
2.1j
Offspring
resemble their parents because they inherit similar genes that code for
the production of proteins that form similar structures
and perform similar functions.
2.1k
The
many body cells in an individual can be very different from one
another, even
though
they are all descended from a single cell and thus have essentially
identical
genetic
instructions. This is because
different parts of these
instructions are used in different types
of cells, and are influenced by the
cell’s environment and past history.
Performance
Explain how the technology
of genetic engineering allows humans to
alter genetic
Indicator 2.2
makeup of organisms.
Major Understandings
2.2a
For thousands
of years new varieties of cultivated plants and domestic animals
have
resulted from selective breeding for particular traits.
2.2b
In
recent years new varieties of farm plants and animals have been
engineered by
manipulating
their genetic instructions to produce new characteristics.
2.2c
Different
enzymes can be used to cut, copy and move segments of DNA.
Characteristics
produced by the segments of DNA may be expressed when these
segments
are inserted into new organisms, such as bacteria.
2.2d
Inserting,
deleting, or substituting DNA segments can alter genes.
An altered
gene
may be passed on to every cell that develops from it.
2.2e
Knowledge
of genetics is making possible new fields of health care; for example,
finding
genes which may have mutations that can cause disease will aid in the
develop-ment of preventive measures to fight disease.
Substances, such as hormones and
enzymes, from genetically engineered
organisms may
reduce the cost and side effects of replacing missing body chemicals.
Key Idea 3:
Individual
organisms and
species change over time.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Evolution
is the change of species over time.
This theory is the central unifying theme of biology. This change over time is well documented
by
extensive evidence from a wide variety of sources.
Students need to know that in sexu-ally reproducing organisms,
only changes in the genes of sex cells can become the basis for
evolutionary
change and that these evolutionary
changes may occur in structure, function and behavior over time. Students need to be able to distinguish
between evolutionary change and the changes that occur during the
lifetime of
an individual organism.
According
to many scientists, biological evolution occurs through natural
selection. Natural selection is the
result of
overproduction of offspring, variations among offspring, the struggle
for
survival, the adaptive value of certain variations, and the subsequent
survival
and increased reproduction of those best adapted to a particular
environ-ment.
Selection for individuals with a certain trait can result in changing
the proportions
of that trait in a population.
The
diversity of life on Earth today is the result of natural selection
occurring
over a vast amount of geologic time for most organisms, but over a
short amount
of time for organisms with short reproductive cycles such as pathogens
in an
antibiotic environment and insects in a pesticide environment.
Performance
Explain the mechanisms and
patterns of evolution.
Indicator 3.1
Major Understandings
3.1a
The
basic theory of biological evolution states that the Earth’s
present-day
species
developed from earlier,
distinctly different species.
3.1b
New
inheritable characteristics can result from new combinations of existing
genes or from mutations of genes in
reproductive cells.
3.1c
Mutation
and the sorting and recombining of genes during meiosis and
fertil-ization
result in a great variety of possible gene combinations.
3.1d
Mutations
occur as random chance events. Gene
mutations can also be caused by such agents as radiation and chemicals. When they occur in sex cells, the mutations
can be passed on to offspring; if they occur in other cells, they can
be passed
on to other body cells only.
3.1e
Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences
provide a scientific explana-
tion for the fossil record
of ancient life-forms, as well as for the molecular and structural
similarities observed among
the diverse species of living organisms.
3.1f
Species
evolve over time. Evolution is the
consequence of the interactions of (1)
the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (2)
the genetic variability of offspring
due to mutation and recombination of
genes, (3) a finite supply of the resources required
for life, and (4) the ensuing
selection by the environment of those offspring better able to
survive and leave offspring.
3.1g
Some
characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving
and
reproducing, and the advantaged offspring, in turn, are
more likely than others to survive
and reproduce. The proportion of
individuals that have
advantageous characteristics will
increase.
3.1h
The
variation of organisms within a species increases the likelihood that
at least
some members of the species will survive under changed
environmental conditions.
Performance
3.1i
Behaviors
have evolved through natural selection.
The broad patterns of behavior
Indicator 3.1
exhibited by organisms are
those that have resulted in greater reproductive success.
3.1j
Billions of years ago, life on Earth
is thought by many scientists to have begun as
simple, single-celled
organisms. About a billion years ago,
increasingly complex
multicellular organisms
began to evolve.
3.1k
Evolution does not necessitate long-term progress in some
set direction.
Evolutionary changes appear
to be like the growth of a bush; some branches survive from
the beginning with little or
no change, many die out altogether, and others branch
repeatedly, sometimes giving
rise to more complex organisms.
3.1l
Extinction of a species occurs when the environment
changes and the adaptive
characteristics of a species
are insufficient to allow its survival.
Fossils indicate that many
organisms that lived long
ago are extinct. Extinction of species
is common; most of the
species that have lived on
Earth no longer exist.
Key Idea 4:
The continuity of life is sustained through
reproduction and development.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
transcend individual life spans through reproduction.
Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical
offspring. Sexual reproduction produces
offspring that have a combination of genes inherited form each parent’s
specialized sex cells (gametes). The
processes of gamete production, fertilization, and development follow
an
orderly sequence of events. Zygotes
contain all the information necessary for growth, development, and
eventual
reproduction of the organism.
Development is a highly regulated process involving mitosis and
differentiation. Reproduction and
development are subject to environmental impact. Human
development, birth, and aging should be viewed as a
predictable pattern of events.
Reproductive technology has medical, agricultural, and
ecological
applications.
Performance Explain how organisms,
including humans, reproduce their own kind.
Indicator
4.1
Major Understandings
4.1a
Reproduction and development are necessary for the
continuation of any species.
4.1b
Some
organisms reproduce asexually with all the genetic information coming
from one
parent. Other organisms reproduce
sexually with half the genetic information typically
contributed by each parent.
Cloning is the production of identical
genetic copies.
4.1c
The processes of meiosis and fertilization are key to
sexual reproduction in a wide
variety of organisms. The
process of meiosis results in the
production of eggs and sperm
which each contain half of
the genetic information. During
fertilization, gametes unite to
form a zygote, which
contains the complete genetic information for the offspring.
4.1d
The zygote may divide by mitosis and differentiate to
form the specialized cell,
tissues, and organs of
multicellular organisms.
4.1e
Human reproduction and development are influenced by
factors such as gene
expression, hormones, and
the environment. The reproductive cycle
in both males and
females is regulated by
hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.
4.1f
The
structures and functions of the human female reproductive system, as in
al-most
all other mammals, are designed to produce gametes in ovaries, allow
for
internal fertilization, support the internal development of the embryo
and
fetus in the uterus, and
provide essential materials through the
placenta,
and nutrition through milk for the newborn.
4.1g
The structures and functions of the human male
reproductive system, as in other
mammals, are designed to
produce gametes in testes and make
possible the delivery of
these gametes for
fertilization.
4.1h
In humans, the embryonic development of essential organs
occurs in early stages
of pregnancy. The
embryo may encounter risks from faults
in its genes and from its
mother’s exposure to
environmental factors such as inadequate diet, use of
alcohol/ drugs/ tobacco,
other toxins, or infections throughout her pregnancy.
Key Idea 5:
Organisms
maintain a dynamic
equilibrium that sustains life.
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Life
is dependent upon availability of an energy source and raw materials
that are
used in the basic enzyme-con-trolled biochemical processes of living
organisms. These biochemical processes
occur within a narrow range of conditions.
Because organisms are continually exposed to changes in their
external
and internal environments, they must continually monitor and respond to
these
changes. Responses to change can range
in complexity from simple activation of a cell chemical process to
elaborate
learned behavior. The result of
these
responses is called homeo-stasis, a “dynamic equilibrium” or “steady
state” which
keeps the internal environment within certain limits.
Organisms have a diversity of homeostatic feedback mechanisms
that detect deviations from the normal state and take corrective
actions to
return their systems to the normal range.
These mechanisms maintain the physical and chemical aspects of
the
internal environment within narrow limits that are favorable for cell
activities. Failure of these control
mechanisms can result in disease or even death.
Performance Explain the basic
biochemical processes in living organisms and their importance in
Indicator 5.1
maintaining dynamic
equilibrium.
Major Understandings
5.1a
The
energy for life comes primarily from the Sun.
Photosynthesis provides a
vital connection between the Sun and the energy needs of
living systems.
5.1b
Plant
cells and some one-celled organisms contain chloroplasts, the site of photo-synthesis. The
process of photosynthesis uses solar energy to combine the
inorganic
molecules carbon dioxide and water into
energy-rich
organic compounds (e.g., glucose) and release oxygen to the environment.
5.1c
In
all organisms, organic compounds can be used to assemble other
molecules
such as proteins, DNA, starch, and fats. The
chemical energy stored in bonds can be
used
as a source of energy for life
processes.
5.1d
In
all organisms, the energy stored in organic molecules may be released
during
cellular respiration.
This energy is temporarily stored in ATP molecules.
In many organ-
isms, the process of cellular respiration is concluded in
mitochondria, in which ATP is
produced more efficiently, oxygen is used, and carbon
dioxide and water are released as
wastes.
Performance
5.1e
The energy from ATP is then used by
the organism to obtain, transform, and
Indicator 5.1
transport
materials, and to eliminate wastes.
continued
5.1f
Biochemical processes, both
breakdown and synthesis, are made possible by a
large set of biological catalysts called enzymes.
Enzymes can affect the rates of chemical
change. The rate at which enzymes
work can be influenced by internal
environmental
factors such as pH and temperature.
5.1g
Enzymes
and other molecules, such as hormones, receptor molecules, and
antibodies, have specific shapes
that influence both how they function and how they
interact with other molecules.
Performance Explain disease
as a failure
of homeostasis.
Indicator
5.2
Major Understandings
5.2a
Homeostasis
in an organism is constantly threatened.
Failure to respond
effectively can result in disease or
death.
5.2b
Viruses,
bacteria, fungi, and other parasites may infect plants and animals and
interfere with normal life functions.
5.2c
The
immune system protects against antigens associated with pathogenic
organisms or foreign
substances and some cancer cells.
5.2d
Some
white blood cells engulf invaders.
Others produce antibodies that attack
them or mark them for killing. Some
specialized white blood cells will
remain, able to
fight off subsequent
invaders of the same kind.
5.2e
Vaccinations
use weakened microbes (or parts of them) to stimulate the immune
system to react.
This reaction prepares the body to fight subsequent invasions by
the
same
microbes.
5.2f
Some
viral diseases, such as AIDS, damage the immune system, leaving the body
unable to deal with multiple infectious agents and
cancerous cells.
5.2g
Some
allergic reactions are caused by the body’s immune responses to usually
harmless environmental substances. Sometimes
the immune system may attack
some of the body’s own cells or transplanted organs.
5.2h
Disease
may also be caused by inheritance, toxic substances, poor nutrition,
organ malfunction, and some personal
behavior. Some effects show up right
away; others
may not show up for many years.
5.2i
Gene
mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division, called
cancer.
Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation
increases mutations and thus increases
the chance of cancer.
5.2j
Biological
research generates knowledge used to design ways of diagnosing,
preventing, treating, controlling, or curing diseases of
plants and animals.
Performance Relate processes at the
system level to the cellular level in order to explain dynamic
Indicator
5.3
equilibrium in multicelled
organisms.
Major Understandings
5.3a
Dynamic
equilibrium results from detection of and response to stimuli. Organisms
detect and respond to change in a
variety of ways both at the cellular level and at the
organismal level.
5.3b
Feedback
mechanisms have evolved that maintain homeostasis.
Examples include
the changes in heart rate or respiratory rate in a
response to increased activity in muscle
cells, the maintenance of blood
sugar levels by insulin from the pancreas, and the changes
in openings in the leaves of plants
by guard cells to regulate water loss and gas exchange.
Key Idea 6:
Plants
and animals depend on
each other and their physical environment.
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The
fundamental concept of ecology is that living organisms interact with
and are
dependent on their environment and each other.
These interactions result in a flow of energy and a cycling of
materials
that are essential for life.
Competition
can occur between members of different species for an ecological niche. Competition can also occur within
species. Competition may be for abiotic
resources, such as space, water, air, and shelter, and for biotic
resources
such as food and mates. Students should
be familiar with the concept of food chains and webs.
Performance Explain factors that limit
growth of individuals and populations.
Indicator
6.1
Major Understandings
6.1a
Energy
flows through ecosystems in one direction, typically from the Sun,
through
photosynthetic organisms including
green plants and algae, to herbivores to
carnivores and
decomposers.
6.1b
The
atoms and molecules on the Earth cycle among the living and nonliving
com-
ponents of the
biosphere. For example, carbon dioxide
and water molecules used in
photosynthesis to form
energy-rich organic compounds are returned to the environment
when the energy in these
compounds is eventually released by cells.
Continual input of
energy from sunlight keeps
the process going. This concept may be
illustrated with an
energy pyramid.
6.1c
The
chemical elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, that
make
up the molecules of living things
pass through food webs and are combined and recom-
bined in different
ways. At each link in a food web, some
energy is stored in newly made
structures but much is
dissipated into the environment as heat.
6.1d
The
number of organisms any habitat can support (carrying capacity) is
limited by
the available energy, water, oxygen,
and minerals, and by the ability of ecosystems to
recycle the residue of dead
organisms through the activities of bacteria and fungi.
6.1e
In
any particular environment, the growth and survival of organisms depend
on the
physical conditions including light
intensity, temperature range, mineral availability, soil/rock type, and relative acidity
(pH).
Performance 6.1f
Living organisms have the capacity
to produce populations of unlimited size, but
Indicator
environments
and resources are finite. This has
profound effects on the interactions
among organisms.
6.1g
Relationships between organisms may
be negative, neutral, or positive. Some
organisms may interact with one another in several
ways. They may be in a
producer/consumer, predator/prey, or
parasite/host relationship; or one organism may
cause disease in, scavenge, or
decompose another.
Performance Explain the
importance of
preserving diversity of species and habitats.
Indicator
6.2
Major Understandings
6.2a
As a
result of evolutionary processes, there is a diversity of organisms and
roles
in
ecosystems. This diversity of
species increases the
chance that at least some will survive
in the face of large environmental
changes. Biodiversity increases the
stability of the
ecosystem.
6.2b
Biodiversity
also ensures the availability of a rich variety of genetic material that
may lead to future agricultural or medical discoveries
with significant value to
humankind. As
diversity is lost, potential sources of
these materials may be lost with it.
Performance Explain how the
living and
nonliving environments change over time and respond to
Indicator
6.3
disturbances.
Major Understandings
6.3a
The
interrelationships and interdependencies of organisms affect the
development
of stable ecosystems.
6.3b
Through
ecological succession, all ecosystems progress through a sequence of
changes during which one ecological community modifies
the environment, making it
more suitable for another
community. These long-term gradual
changes result in the
community reaching a point of stability that can last for
hundreds or thousands of years.
6.3c
A stable ecosystem can be altered, either rapidly or slowly,
through the
activities of organisms (including humans), or through climatic changes
or
natural disasters. The
altered ecosystem can usually recover through gradual
changes back to a point of long-
term stability.
Key Idea 7:
Human
decisions and
activities have had a profound impact on the physical and living
environment.
================================================================================
Population
growth has placed new strains on the environment – massive pollution of
air and
water, deforestation and extinction of species, global warming, and
alteration
of the ozone shield. Some individuals
believe that there will be a
technological fix for such problems.
Others, concerned with the accelerating pace of change and the
ecological
concept of finite resources, are far less optimistic.
What is certain, however, is that resolving these issues will
require increasing global awareness, cooperation, and action.
Since
the students of today will be the elected officials and informed public
of
tomorrow, the teacher should encourage a diversity of activities that
will
allow students to explore, explain, and apply conceptual understanding
and
skills necessary to be environmentally literate.
Performance Describe the
range of
interrelationships of humans with the living and nonliving
Indicator
7.1
environment.
Major Understandings
7.1a
The
Earth has finite resources; increasing human consumption of resources
places
stress on the natural processes that
renew some resources and deplete those resources
that cannot be renewed.
7.1b
Natural
ecosystems provide an array of basic processes that affect humans. Those
processes include but are not
limited to: maintenance of the quality of the atmosphere,
generation of soils, control of the
water cycle, removal of wastes, energy flow, and recy-
cling of nutrients. Humans
are changing many of these basic
processes and the changes
may be detrimental.
7.1c
Human
beings are part of the Earth’s ecosystems. Human activities can,
deliberate-
ly or inadvertently, alter
the equilibrium in ecosystems. Humans
modify ecosystems as a
result of population growth,
consumption, and technology. Human
destruction of habitats
through direct harvesting,
pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors is threatening
current global stability,
and if not addressed, ecosystems may be irreversibly affected.
Performance Explain the
impact of
technological development and growth in the human population on
Indicator
7.2
the living and nonliving
environment.
Major Understandings
7.2a
Human
activities that degrade ecosystems result in a loss of diversity of the
living
and nonliving environment. For
example, the influence of humans on
other organisms
occurs through land use and
pollution. Land use decreases the space
and resources
available to other species, and
pollution changes the chemical composition of air, soil,
and water.
7.2b
When
humans alter ecosystems either by adding or removing specific organisms,
serious consequences may result. For
example, planting large expanses of one
crop
reduces the biodiversity of the area.
7.2c
Industrialization
brings an increased demand for and use of energy and other
resources including fossil
and nuclear fuels. This usage can
have
positive and negative
effects on humans and
ecosystems.
Performance Explain how
individual
choices and societal actions can contribute to improving the
Indicator
7.3
environment.
Major Understandings
7.3a
Societies
must decide on proposals which involve the introduction of new
technologies. Individuals need to
make decisions which
will assess risks, costs, benefits,
and trade-offs.
7.3b
The decisions of one generation both provide and limit
the range of possibilities
open to the next generation.
In
addition to demonstrating the performance indicators relating to
scientific
inquiry described in Standard1, biology students need to develop
proficiency in
certain laboratory or technical skills in order to successfully conduct
investigations in biological science.
During the school year, teachers should ensure that students
develop the
capacity to successfully perform each of the laboratory skills listed
below. Proficiency in performing these
laboratory skills may also be evaluated by items found on certain parts
of the
State’s Living environment assessment.
·
Follows
safety rules in the laboratory
·
Selects
and uses correct instruments
·
Uses
graduated cylinders to measure volume
·
Uses
metric ruler to measure length
·
Uses
thermometer to measure temperature
·
Uses
triple-beam or electronic balance to measure mass
·
Uses
a compound microscope/stereoscope effectively to see specimens clearly,
using
different magnifications
·
Identifies
and compared parts of a variety of cells
·
Compares
relative sizes of cells and organelles
·
Prepares
wet-mount slides and uses appropriate staining techniques
·
Designs
and uses dichotomous keys to identify specimens
·
Makes
observations of biological processes
·
Dissects
plant and/ or animal specimens to expose and identify internal
structures
·
Follows
directions to correctly use and interpret chemical indicators
·
Uses
chromatography and/ or electrophoresis to separate molecules
·
Designs
and carries out a controlled, scientific experiment based on biological
processes
·
States
an appropriate hypothesis
·
Differentiates
between independent and dependent variables
·
Identifies
the control group and/ or controlled variables
·
Collects,
organizes, and analyzes data, using a computer and/or other laboratory
equipment.
·
Organizes
data through the use of data tables and graphs
·
Analyzes
results from observations/ expressed data
·
Formulates
an appropriate conclusion or generalization from the results of an
experiment.
·
Recognizes
assumptions and limitations of the experiment.